Byblos and the Making of an Ancient Maritime Hub
June 2026 | Vol. 14.6
By Hanan Charaf and Martine Francis-Allouche
The authors dedicate this article to the heritage of Lebanon, which remains under grave threat in the latest war, and to the people working tirelessly to protect it.
Its history is not one of imperial conquests or territorial expansion. Rather, it is a story of interconnectedness, that of a city that flourished through its ties with other regions and powers. Byblos occupied a liminal position between inland routes — the Bekaa Valley leading to Syria and Mesopotamia — and maritime routes extending along the Levantine coast into the broader Mediterranean. This position allowed it to function as a gateway: goods could arrive from distant regions, be redistributed, and continue their journey.
One thing certain is that the rise of Byblos cannot be understood apart from its geography. The site, situated on a sandstone promontory, offered natural advantages favorable for a permanent settlement: access to a water point and two sheltered anchorages, and proximity to fertile hinterlands and Mount-Lebanon forests where the famous cedrus libani and other conifers grew.
From an early date, these features attracted settlement, and by the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, a fishing community had already established itself on the site. By the end of the fourth millennium BCE, however, something had changed. The small settlement evolved into a fortified city-state during the Early Bronze Age to accommodate a millennia-long timber trade primarily with ancient Egypt. Indeed, the Nile Valley lacked suitable timber for large-scale construction and Egyptian rulers depended on external sources for shipbuilding, monumental architecture, woodworking, as well as resin for medicinal ointments and funerary practices. The exploitation of Byblos’s forest resources, the superior forestry skills of its citizens, and ultimately the export of timber via its convenient port were the main factors that contributed to the city’s wealth and importance.
Byblos became Egypt’s indispensable partner. Seti I’s bas-relief depicts the “Great Chiefs of Lebanon” felling trees for the Pharaoh, thus bearing witness to these trade transactions between Byblos and Egypt in the second millennium BCE. Later, the 11th century BCE story of Wenamun, an Egyptian high dignitary sent to Byblos by Pharaoh Ramses XI to buy wood to repair Amon’s sacred vessel in the temple of Thebes, highlights the continuing timber commerce with Byblos. Archaeological evidence illustrates the intensity of this connection with hundreds of Egyptian artifacts such as stone vessels and inscriptions bearing royal names uncovered in temples and tombs as early as the third millennium BCE.
These strong ties are also evident in the local material culture of Byblos, where Egyptian motifs appear in art, hieroglyphic inscriptions are used in royal contexts, and religious practices show close parallels with those of Egypt. The city’s main deity, Baalat Gebal, was assimilated with the Egyptian goddess Hathor. At first glance, such features might be interpreted as evidence of Egyptian dominance at Byblos. Recent studies, however, point instead to selective cultural appropriation rather than Egyptian direct political control.
The elites of Byblos adopted Egyptian symbols, titles, and artistic forms not out of subordination, but to enhance their own authority within a competitive environment where prestige mattered. Additionally, a large corpus of pottery vessels made with local clays but imitating Egyptian fabrics, uncovered in recent excavations, may suggest the presence of potential taverns and other establishments catering to Egyptian clientele such as sailors and merchants.
Yet the relationship with Egypt was not one-sided: Canaanite storage jars have been found in Egyptian contexts, including Tomb U-j at Abydos (c. 3300 BCE), which belonged to a local ruler. Byblos was thus not only a supplier of timber and resin; it was also a key hub in the exchange of luxury commodities. The city imported supplies such as gold, silver, ivory, and faience from Ancient Egypt, Syrian polities (Ebla?), and Cilicia, and helped circulate them across the region. It is believed that these commodities played an important role in shaping Near Eastern elite identity and in strengthening the position of local rulers within wider international networks. Researchers have also suggested that Mesopotamian motifs found in Egypt (on the Gebel al-Arak knife or the Narmer Palette) may have transited through direct or indirect exchange networks involving Byblos.
Within its walls, Byblos’ acropolis (from akron meaning top and polis, meaning city) or upper fortified city, was a compact city but carefully structured in at least seven neighborhoods. It contained the key urban institutions: temples, administrative buildings, and palaces organized around a central water point that served both a practical and symbolic focal point and was later monumentalized as a sacred well.
Recent studies have demonstrated that this water source was not a natural spring, as long thought, but rather a well with a human-engineered shaft dug at the center of the promontory, within a natural depression located at the lowest point between the two hills forming the headland, in order to tap into groundwaters fed by the numerous rivers of the hinterland. From this sacred well, streets radiated outward crossing three circular major arteries, in a pattern known from other Levantine cities such as Tell Arqa in northern Lebanon. Narrow alleys connected residential areas, while broader routes linked the interior to the city gates and, ultimately, to the sea. The fortifications that enclosed this space were equally significant. Massive walls and glacis protected the settlement, particularly on the eastern landward side, where threats were most likely to emerge.
Monumental gates with multiple wooden doors regulated access, controlling the flow of traffic between the acropolis, the lower city, and the sea. Two harbors facilitated fishing and maritime activity, while royal and elite cemeteries often located near gates reflected social hierarchies and ritual practices. The placement of tombs was not arbitrary; it expressed distinctions of status and proximity to power sites (palace and temples). No burials of ordinary inhabitants have been found within the city’s limits, suggesting that the cemeteries of the general population were most likely located outside its walls, likely beneath the modern town of Jbeil.
Investigating Maritime Byblos
For more than 75 years, archaeological research at Byblos was primarily land-based, focusing on the ancient tell of Byblos. The coastline, notably the Qassouba Valley, located at the southern foot of the ancient tell, is highlighted by French Orientalist Ernest Renan in his 1860s work, Mission de Phénicie, as a natural shelter for ships due to its geography. In contrast, the northern harbor of Byblos was long thought to be the ancient city’s main mooring facility, an idea largely based on the 1930 aerial photographs taken by the French archaeologist Antoine Poidebard. This theory was later challenged by British pioneering figure Honor Frost, who argued that the northern harbor could only likely accommodate small vessels, making it suitable for a fishermen’s cove rather than for heavy cargo. Frost began conducting archaeological studies in the 1990s in search of Byblos’s ancient harbor. Initially unable to locate any substantial mooring facilities on the city’s seafront, she focused on submerged reefs, referred to as the “Dahret Martine,” anchorages located at 1.5 to 4 km offshore. These reefs were believed to host large ships, facilitating Byblos’ maritime trade via coasters or lighters for transporting goods. Discovery of pierced stone anchors at these sites supported Frost’s hypothesis.
Carrying on Frost’s legacy after her passing in 2010, Martine Francis-Allouche and Nicolas Grimal have launched Byblos et la mer, an ongoing multidisciplinary research project that has conducted multiple remote-sensing surveys and archaeological field missions since 2011. This endeavor plotted the offshore approaches to Byblos to understand the role of the offshore reefs within the harbor system. Due to their exposure to the element, these reefs were probably used as temporary anchorages for ships awaiting mooring in Byblos’ commercial harbor. The handling of large timber logs, as mentioned in ancient texts, would have been challenging on ships anchored at sea.
Modern coastal topographies do not accurately reflect past landscapes due to significant changes in sea levels, erosion or silting. Interdisciplinary geoarchaeological studies at Byblos, such as marine and terrestrial geophysical surveys, have revealed insights into the geomorphology and layout of the ancient shorelines and harbors. The Byblos et la mer Project undertook several investigations on the Armenian Orphanage lot in the Qassouba Valley. Surveys were conducted to evaluate the valley’s potential as a safe mooring basin for merchant ships such as the 15-meter-long Uluburun shipwreck (14th century BCE) and the 12-meter-long Cape Gelidonya shipwreck (13th century BCE).
Geophysical surveys revealed a buried harbor basin and a palaeoshoreline located about 100 meters inland. The site’s topography afforded thus a substantial area of approximately 20,000 m² with an average water depth of 2.5 meters, suitable for large cargo vessels. Siltation of the harbor led to its eventual abandonment, with the definitive closure possibly linked to an earthquake in 551 CE. Current modern constructions have obscured remnants of the ancient southern harbor of Byblos and future archaeological research may reveal its presumed quays and other harbor facilities, as well as shed more light on the reasons behind its abandonment.
In addition to the underwater investigations, recent land excavations carried out by the Byblos et la mer Project on the southern fringes of the ancient tell have helped define the overall urban fabric of the ancient city and revealed the remnants of a once substantial fortified Middle Bronze Age city gate. This gate — dubbed the Southern Harbor Gate — provided access to the lower city and its large harbor, which accommodated seagoing merchantmen, as described in the Wenamun story.
Various mooring and anchoring sites around ancient Byblos have now been identified, featuring a complex harbor system with two primary facilities. The northern cove served the fishing community and facilitated short-distance transportation, while the southern harbor was deeper and more suited for larger commercial vessels. This southern harbor likely included an outer facility located in the Bay of Jouret Osman, shielded by El-Yasmine Island from the prevailing south-western winds, and a nearby Dahret Martine offshore anchorage for ships awaiting to be moored at the Bronze Age harbor of Byblos. The sandy El-Skhyné Bay could have served for handling operations, such as transshipment, goods storage and probably as a shipyard area. This complex mooring system would have fulfilled the trade needs of this maritime city, most likely the ancient city’s economic hub over millennia.
Future Byblos et la mer archaeological investigations will focus on the harbor basin’s configuration and potential structures. The project’s findings necessitate thus extending the limits of Byblos southward to include the newly identified harbor area, ensuring its protection within the archaeological perimeter in accordance with its status as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Byblos’s connection to the sea was not incidental. It was fundamental. The city’s sophisticated dual harbor system illustrates a nuanced understanding of maritime needs. The acropolis, nestled on top of a promontory, overlooked a lower town with the southern and northern harbors on either side, as well as a valuable hinterland with dense conifer forests and the vital presence of the surrounding valleys and rivers, which served as ancient routes and transportation axes. Ancient Byblos owes its spectacular growth and remarkable rise during the Bronze and Iron Ages to this global harbor system which served, among others, the cities’ lucrative timber export over millennia. This land arrangement suggests a division of labor within the urban economy. Local subsistence activities such as pottery making, jewelry craftsmanship, and metalworking coexisted in the city with international commerce and were each supported by distinct infrastructures such as industrial quarters attached to the temples. Together, they sustained the city’s population and its interregional trade connections.
The sea also shaped the mental world of Byblos’ inhabitants. In religious contexts, the sea’s strong symbolism frequently represented sacred protection against the sea’s unpredictable and chaotic nature. Stone anchors, which are typically used for navigation, were deposited as offerings or ex-votos in the city’s various temples on the site, sometimes even being integrated into their structures. These anchors took on a symbolic meaning here, expressing hopes for safe journeys or gratitude for survival.
Unlike the great territorial states of the Bronze Age, Byblos did not build an empire. Its influence rested on something less visible but equally effective: its position within networks. Texts from the Late Bronze Age, including the famous Amarna letters, reveal a world of diplomacy and negotiation. The ruler of Byblos appears as a correspondent of the Egyptian pharaoh, requesting assistance, affirming loyalty, and navigating a landscape of competing interests. What emerges is a picture of a city adept at survival. Rather than relying on military strength, it leveraged its economic and strategic importance. Its role as an intermediary ensured that it remained relevant, even as political configurations shifted over time.
Hanan Charaf PhD, is an associate professor of art and archaeology at the Lebanese University. She is also the Director for North African Cultural Heritage Projects at ASOR.
Martine Francis-Allouche PhD, is a marine archaeologist, affiliated Researcher at Collège de France, and Director of the research project “Byblos et la mer”. She is also an ICOMOS-ICUCH member.
Byblos, cité millénaire du Liban is on display at Institut du Monde Arabe in Paris until 23 August 2026.
Suggested further reading:
Byblos, A Legacy Unearthed. 2024. Edited by the National Museum of Antiquities (the Netherlands), Ministry of Culture/Directorate General of Antiquities (Lebanon). Sidestone Press, Leiden. [Open access]
Charaf, H. 2026. “Les relations entre Byblos et l’Égypte durant l’âge du Bronze (3300-1200 av. J.-C.),” in Byblos. Cité millénaire, Editions Sans Egal, Paris, 110–121.
Charaf, H. 2024. “The Relations between Byblos and Egypt during the Middle Bronze Age,” in Byblos, A Legacy Unearthed, Sidestone, Leiden, 123–128.
Charaf, H. 2021. “La céramique de l’âge du Bronze de Byblos – Projet Byblos et la Mer,” Bulletin d’Archéologie et d’Architecture Libanaises 21, 208–244.
Charaf, H. and Francis-Allouche, M. 2026. “Byblos à l’âge du Bronze, une métropole maritime,” in Byblos. Cité millénaire, Editions Sans Egal, Paris, 74–81.
Montet, P. 1928. Byblos et l’Égypte, Bibliothèque Archéologique et Historique 11, Geuthner, Paris.
Francis-Allouche, M. 2025. Byblos et la Mer. Les abords maritimes et le système portuaire antique. Mémoires de l’Académie et Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Tome 65, Peteers.
Francis-Allouche, M. and Grimal, N. 2016. “The Maritime Approaches to Ancient Byblos (Lebanon),” Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies 4(2–3), 242–277.
Saghieh, M. 1983. Byblos in the Third Millennium B.C. Warminster, London.
Zaven , T. (ed.) 2026. Byblos, Cité millénaire du Liban. Editions Sans Égal, Paris.
How to cite this article:
Charaf, H. and Francis-Allouche, M. 2026. “Byblos and the Making of an Ancient Maritime Hub”, The Ancient Near East Today 14.6. Accessed at: https://anetoday.org/byblos-maritime-hub/.
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I have had the pleasure to go to Byblos 4 times now as I’m in Lebanon working with Syrian refugees and sharing the gospel It is something to see so I appreciated the article and insights.