Hexaplex trunculus shell collected near Tel Shiqmona. Four hundred such shells were identified by two free-style divers within 90 mins at a depth of one to two meters on October 20, 2020. Photo by Ayelet Gilboa. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 3). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.
August 21, 2025

Purple Ambitions: Tel Shiqmona and the Rise of Israelite Dye Industry in the Iron Age

August 2025 | Vol. 13.8

By Golan Shalvi

At first glance, Tel Shiqmona is an unassuming mound on the Carmel coast of Israel, hemmed in by the Mediterranean Sea and modern Haifa. For decades, the site received little attention compared to the grand coastal cities of the ancient Phoenician coast. But recent research has changed that, revealing a unique purple dye production facility that flourished throughout the Iron Age (ca. 1100–600 BCE). What was once considered a peripheral outpost is now understood as a vibrant industrial center — perhaps the most complete archaeological evidence of a “factory” for royal purple dye ever uncovered in the Mediterranean basin.

Location map of Tel Shiqmona and other sites mentioned in the text. Map by Sapir Haad. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 1). Licensed under CC BY 4.0

Location map of Tel Shiqmona and other sites mentioned in the text. Map by Sapir Haad. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 1). Licensed under CC BY 4.0

Aerial view of Tel Shiqmona and its surroundings, looking east. Photo by Michael Eisenberg. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 2). Licensed under CC BY 4.0

Aerial view of Tel Shiqmona and its surroundings, looking east. Photo by Michael Eisenberg. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 2). Licensed under CC BY 4.0

Thanks to recent excavations and a comprehensive reevaluation of past finds, our study provides the first definitive direct archaeological identification of a large-scale, long-term purple dye production and dyeing center. Through the integration of advanced chemical analyses, meticulous examination of the artifacts, and the study of contextual data, we identified over 170 artifacts linked to dye production — more than have been found at any other site in the ancient world. The finds range from fragments of thick-walled ceramic vats to stained stone tools and more. Most importantly, we reconstructed the shape of the complete vats used for dye preparation, the first such instance in the Mediterranean Iron Age.

Why Purple? 

Purple dye, referred to as techelet or argaman in Hebrew, has fascinated people for millennia. Its association with elite classes and religious rituals accorded to it immense cultural, symbolic, and economic significance far beyond its function as a mere colorant. Despite its prominence in ancient texts and modern scholarship, we still know relatively little about the places where it was produced and the manner of production, especially in the pre-Roman world. 

Purple dye is a perfect example of what makes a product luxurious: it was exceptionally high-quality, required advanced knowledge to produce, and relied on scarce natural resources. Derived from the hypobranchial gland of marine mollusks — especially Hexaplex trunculus (commonly known as murex) — the dye was labor-intensive and chemically complex to produce, with a recipe that was apparently kept secret. The process involved delicate extraction and sophisticated redox reactions, resulting in a dye that is chemically bonded with wool, rendering it virtually indelible, even to bleach, and its vibrant hues did not fade over time.

Hexaplex trunculus shell collected near Tel Shiqmona. Four hundred such shells were identified by two free-style divers within 90 mins at a depth of one to two meters on October 20, 2020. Photo by Ayelet Gilboa. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 3). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Hexaplex trunculus shell collected near Tel Shiqmona. Four hundred such shells were identified by two free-style divers within 90 mins at a depth of one to two meters on October 20, 2020. Photo by Ayelet Gilboa. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 3). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

 

A patch of purple wool from Timna Valley in Israel, likely dyed using murex. Photo by Dafna Gazit / Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority. Image credit: Sukenik et al. (2021), PLOS ONE (Figure 2). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

A patch of purple wool from Timna Valley in Israel, likely dyed using murex. Photo by Dafna Gazit / Courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority. Image credit: Sukenik et al. (2021), PLOS ONE (Figure 2). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

The dyed textiles were reserved for temples, royalty, and high-ranking elites. Ancient authors from Pliny to Julius Pollux (the first and second centuries CE, respectively) described its legendary production methods in the classical world, but archaeological evidence — particularly for the Biblical period — remained elusive. This is now beginning to change. 

The Evidence from Tel Shiqmona 

Located on a rocky headland rich in Muricidae mollusks, Shiqmona offered the perfect ecological setting for purple dye production. The site has yielded 176 production-related artifacts across ten well-defined Iron Age strata, including dozens of thick-walled ceramic sherds heavily stained with purple dye residues. These sherds were confirmed via chemical testing (HPLC) to contain dye derived from marine mollusks.  

Further chemical and mineralogical analyses allowed us to match additional, unstained fragments from the same vats, enabling the first illustrated reconstruction of a complete purple dye vessel and identification of a unique production technique that was maintained consistently for about 300 years. These vats, around one meter tall and 70 centimeters in diameter, were fired at relatively low temperatures and produced from local materials.

Fragments of vats with short segments of the body with purple dye remains. Photos by Moshe Caine. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 5). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Fragments of vats with short segments of the body with purple dye remains. Photos by Moshe Caine. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 5). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Dino-Lite digital microscope photos of purple-dye residue on miscellaneous pottery vessels. Photos by Golan Shalvi and Maria Bukin. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 10). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Dino-Lite digital microscope photos of purple-dye residue on miscellaneous pottery vessels. Photos by Golan Shalvi and Maria Bukin. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 10). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Proposed reconstructions of the purple-dye vats. Illustrations by Sapir Haad. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 19). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Proposed reconstructions of the purple-dye vats. Illustrations by Sapir Haad. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 19). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Additional evidence includes stained grinding stones, other stone tools, and more than 80 sherds with secondary staining from contact with the dye. Many of these artifacts were found in the industrial buildings, sometimes alongside loom weights, tabuns (ovens), and olive oil installations, suggesting an integrated production landscape, though not all facilities were necessarily active simultaneously.

Basalt grinding stone tool with purple dye residue. Below are the Dino-Lite digital microscope photos of the purple dye residue on it. Photos by Maria Bukin. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 11). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Basalt grinding stone tool with purple dye residue. Below are the Dino-Lite digital microscope photos of the purple dye residue on it. Photos by Maria Bukin. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 11). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

 

A Long History of Industry

Tel Shiqmona’s dye industry did not emerge overnight. In the early Iron Age (11th–10th centuries BCE), it began as a modest Phoenician settlement that, like other sites along the southern Phoenician coast, supported small-scale dye production. 

Archaeological evidence indicates that around the mid-9th century BCE, a dramatic transformation occurred. The original Phoenician village was overtaken and rebuilt. A casemate wall — a type of wall composed of a row of rooms — now enclosed the site, and standardized three-room houses appeared, a typology best known from the territories of the Kingdom of Israel. Alongside the traditional Phoenician ceramic repertoire, vessels typical of the Kingdom of Israel began to appear in significant quantities. Most notably, this period saw a sharp increase in production scale, marked by the emergence of large, standardized industrial vats used in the purple-dyeing process.

This transformation aligns with the rise of the Omride dynasty in Israel. Under kings like Omri and Ahab, the kingdom expanded its territorial reach north and east — as reflected in inscriptions like the Mesha Stele and the Tel Dan Stele. It is plausible that during this period, Israelite rulers also turned their attention westward, seeking to control the lucrative coastal resources, most notably Shiqmona’s purple dye industry.

Map of the kingdom of Israel under the Omride Dynasty. Map by FinnWikiNo / Wikimedia Commons, CC By-SA 3.0. The location of Tell Shiqmona has been added for reference.

Map of the kingdom of Israel under the Omride Dynasty. Map by FinnWikiNo / Wikimedia Commons, CC By-SA 3.0. The location of Tell Shiqmona has been added for reference.

The Israelites themselves lacked maritime expertise, and the dye industry required intimate ecological knowledge and marine know-how. The most likely scenario is cooperation: local Phoenician laborers operating under Israelite political authority. This hybrid model of administration and expertise offers the clearest explanation for the site’s uniquely blended material culture.

After the destruction of the Kingdom of Israel, in the 7th century BCE, during the Neo-Assyrian period, the site was rebuilt and reactivated — possibly by Tyrian agents operating under Assyrian auspices. This period was marked by Assyrian imperial expansion and administrative restructuring throughout the southern Levant. Shiqmona may have been redeveloped as part of broader efforts to restore and reorganize trade and coastal industries along the Phoenician coast under Assyrian dominance. Eventually, the site was destroyed in the Babylonian conquest around 600 BCE. Although it was resettled during the Persian period (539–333 BCE), no clear evidence of renewed purple dye production has been found after the Babylonian destruction at the end of the Iron Age. In the Byzantine period, however, the site was apparently called Porphyreon — a name that reflects its association with purple dye. 

The Broader Significance 

The discoveries at Tel Shiqmona challenge long-held assumptions about the mode of purple dye production, the identity of its producers, and the broader history of this industry in the ancient Mediterranean. The site presents a rare example of a centralized dye and dyeing industry operating under royal supervision, with standardized vessel forms and manufacturing techniques maintained across centuries. The scale of the purple-related assemblage sets a new benchmark for identifying similar production centers elsewhere. Its unusually complete material profile — reconstructed vats, stained tools, and crushed shells — offers a rare glimpse into the full chaîne opératoire (operational sequence) of shellfish dye manufacturing.

Schematic plan of Stratum 11 (first half of the 8th century BCE) with spatial distribution of finds related to purple-dye production. Illustration by Sapir Haad. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 14). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Schematic plan of Stratum 11 (first half of the 8th century BCE) with spatial distribution of finds related to purple-dye production. Illustration by Sapir Haad. Image credit: Golan Shalvi et al. (2025), PLOS ONE (Figure 14). Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Purple dye production is often viewed as quintessentially Phoenician craft. Yet Shiqmona reveals a more complex reality — one in which technological traditions were adopted, transformed, and expanded under shifting political regimes. As the Mediterranean continues to yield its secrets, Tel Shiqmona reminds us that some of the most transformative discoveries emerge from the small, often overlooked sites on the margins.

Golan Shalvi is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Calgary, a Research Fellow at the Zinman Institute of Archaeology at the University of Haifa, and co-director of the Tel Shiqmona Archaeological Project, which he leads jointly with Ayelet Gilboa.

Further Reading: 

Shalvi, G., Sukenik, N., Waiman-Barak, P., Dunseth C.Z., Bar, S., Pinsky, S., Iluz, D., Amar, Z., Gilboa, A. 2025. Tel Shiqmona during the Iron Age: A First Glimpse into an Ancient Mediterranean Purple Dye Factory. PLOS One 20(4): e0321082. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321082

Shalvi, G., Gilboa, A. 2023. Between Israel and Phoenicia: The Iron Age IIA-B fortified purple-dye production plant at Tel Shiqmona. Tel Aviv 50: 75–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/03344355.2023.2190283 

Mylona D, Brogan TM, Eaby M, Iacovou M, editors. 2025. PORPHYRA: the materiality of purple dye production and use in Cyprus and the Aegean from prehistory to the Late Roman period. Louvain: Aegis. 

How to cite this article:

Shalvi, G. 2025. “Purple Ambitions: Tel Shiqmona and the Rise of Israelite Dye Industry in the Iron Age” The Ancient Near East Today 13.8. Accessed at: https://anetoday.org/tell-shiqmona-purple-dye/.

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